Research paper written for PSCI 323: Politics of Developing Nations
Introduction
“Behind every great fortune lies a great crime.” ―Honore de Balzac. Known famously as the epigraph at the beginning of The Godfather, this phrase was utilized by the Pakistani Supreme Court at the beginning of a hearing regarding former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and his family's financial dealings.[1] The 2017 hearing was another reminder of how Pakistan, over the course of 74 years, has consistently failed to establish any sort of political stability or adequate social development. Established as a parliamentary democracy in 1947, at the time of the partition of British India, the state has experienced repeated military coups over its 74 years of existence, and has continued down a hole of corruption and exploitation of its constituents.[2] As of 2019, the country ranks 120 on the Corruption Perceptions Index, out of 180 countries, reinforcing the claim that, “Corruption… is unfortunately endemic in Pakistan. No structure, no tier and no office of public sector is immune from it.”[3] Research on this developing nation reveals that both the widespread political corruption and systematic ineptitude of the public sector has caused a national-scale infrastructure crisis and exacerbated economic instability.
To fully understand the extent of corruption in Pakistan it is essential to firstly define the concept of corruption itself. Arguably the term alludes to a complex concept, as there can be a multitude of avenues through which corruption can manifest. The esteemed economist, Vito Tanzi, defined the phenomenon of corruption as, “an elephant, even though it may be difficult to describe, it is generally not difficult to recognize when observed.”[4] While attempting to shed clarity on the vague concept, this definition also serves as a reminder that with any observation there are also differing perspectives and inherent biases at work.[5] However, from the wide range of different understandings the following perspectives of corruption emerge to help provide a solidified snapshot of the concept and how to recognize it:[6]
“Corruption is an exchange of mutual benefits and rewards that occur voluntarily and takes place by mutual agreement.
Corruption is violation of norms. In other words, it is immoral behavior which includes deviation from legal norms or moral values.
Corruption is abuse of power, in which actors utilize the authority, position for personal benefits and interests.
Corrupt actors form an intimate, close, and hidden community in which they secretly agree on the illegal aims and advantages of their exchange relationship.”[7]
These definitions of corruption and the context of the current COVID-19 pandemic allow Pakistan’s shortcomings to become even more apparent and troubling. The lack of clean running water, efficient electricity, or productive healthcare is exposing the citizens to a bleak battle against the pandemic, with little attention or care extended by the government towards its people. The lasting practice of corruption in the nation is severely impacting the day to day and long-term lives of its citizens, as the country is floundering on its social contract promise to the people. It is disappointingly transparent that even in the midst of a global pandemic the politicians’ primary concerns are maintaining their own lives of luxury. Pakistan has internally inflicted wounds that are stifling it from entering the global stage as a developed nation.
Forms of Corruption in Pakistan
Corruption is present in many forms in Pakistan. A few examples would be, “financial and political corruption, nepotism, and misuse of power.”[8] It is common practice for citizens to prepare bribes before dealing with governmental institutions or officials, or even to access basic public services.[9] Many scholars argue that the cause of such wide-spread and rampant corruption lies in the sociocultural and political matrix of the Pakistani society, which has been confronting a gradual loss of a value system and identity.[10] Survey results conducted by the Transparency Index (TI) in 2002 showed that 100% of the respondents had experienced corruption during interactions with the police.[11] According to the results of a 2006 TI survey, the three most corrupt governmental agencies were the police, power sector, and judiciary.[12] These can be referred to as “corruption prone” institutions, and the breadth of their corruption runs deep and cuts across federal, provincial and local administrations as well, since delivery is divided between different political levels and must climb several bureaucratic levels before reaching the destination.[13]
A 2004 Transparency Index survey broke down the causes of corruption in these sectors even further, with the first reason being a “Lack of Accountability” with 31.68%. The next two highest reasons were “Low Salaries” with 16.54% and “Monopoly of Power” with 16.43%.[14] These statistics demonstrate the distressing reality of everyday life in Pakistan. An average Pakistani citizen will witness and experience corruption “every time he encounters bureaucracy, from paying bills, registering births, reporting a crime, getting an electricity connection, trying to get children admitted to a school, to recording the sale of a house.”[15] The sheer scale of corruption is turning the nation into a greater failure as each day passes. No section of the public sector is spared from the grasp of corruption, and so will never be able to function as a successful democracy or sustainable nation when the time presents itself, as it has during the COVID-19 pandemic.
This begs the question; why is corruption so prevalent in Pakistan? Why has there been no adequate reform for this phenomenon that has permeated every level of society? The answer may lie in the foundation of the nation itself. Pakistan has a strong traditional society that is juxtaposed with a modern state.[16] Furthermore, the nation has suffered under both autocratic and democratic regimes, with arguably very little stable political structure built up over the past seven decade.[17] The military holds a greater influence in Pakistan, with the bureaucracy being the second most organized and influential institution.[18] This distinction is essential to understanding the power structure and setup in Pakistan, as well as recognizing the political instability. The military pulls the final strings.
Along with this dysfunctional governing arrangement is the lack of social development, growing social inequalities, increasing income disparities, low literacy levels, rising birth rates, and poor infrastructure and sanitation facilities.[19] If corruption were removed from the political and public sectors could Pakistan regain an upward trajectory in its course as a developing country? It is difficult to hypothesize fully, but history does reveal that the decline of Pakistan’s good governance, whatever semblance it first held, is directly correlated to the increase in corruption.
Decline of Good Governance
Good governance is an essential characteristic of a functioning and developed nation. A modern state has multiple functions, with development being its core role, as it seeks to better the lives of its citizens and future generations in a responsible and sustainable manner.[20] A nations ability to fulfill these functions rests upon its institutional capacities. At its most basic and fundamental levels governmental institutions set the “rules of the game” under which societies, economies, systems and markets operate, all functioning collaboratively in order to achieve development and sustainability.[21] It is recognized then that poor governance leads to, encourages, and breeds corruption in a number of ways. The usage of corruption attacks a country’s sustainability and functionality at every level. Corruption not only reduces the efficiency of the economy, but also reduces the governments resources and thereby the capacity for investment in its society.[22] It renders its fundamental institutions obsolete and useless.
It would be simple enough to list the various sectors of governance that Pakistan’s corruption has tainted and fractured, but the phenomenon of corruption in the nation requires a closer and more contextual approach to understanding the decline of good governance. Data and literature report that Pakistan’s institutional performance until the 1990s was fairly productive, despite its issues adopting a constitutional democracy.[23] History reveals that, “the quality of the country’s civil service, and its ability to maintain independent judgement, was impressive, and performance across a range of economic as well as social indicators was above par when compared to many developing countries.”[24] However, this all seemingly fell apart at the start of the 1990s. Since then, there has been a consistent weakening of the institutional systems in Pakistan, which has contributed to concocting a vacuum that continuously funnels more corruption through.
Modern scholarship has identified that the presence of corruption in Pakistan follows an “upstream” path, illustrating that the corruption has “wings which encourage flight of capital rather than wheel which encourage reinvestment.”[25] This method of corruption ends up rewarding and reinforcing the corrupt individuals, and further weakens the already underdeveloped legal processes that aim to fight it, inevitably drawing them into the cycle and pulling the strings to cover up immoral behavior as needed.[26] This has resulted in a fundamental breakdown of law and order and exacerbated social inequality as the corrupt officials and wealthy individuals have an easier time cheating the system, while the rest of the population is left to deal with the increase in crime and decrease in justice.[27]
A closer look at the judicial sector of Pakistan reveals just how inept the institution is in the face of such rampant and saturated corruption and highlights how there is little obstruction in the decline of good governance in the country. Previous data has shown how the judicial sector is one of the three corruption-prone institutions, but its shortcomings stem further than just petty bribes and reveal large-scale ineptitude and inefficiency. There are only 3,967 judges in the entire judicial system for a population of 200 million people, meaning there is only one judge for every 50,000 citizens. [28] Coupled with the fact that there are over 1.7 million cases pending in the courts, individuals are stuck waiting decades for some sort of judgement, while the problems they face continue to fester and worsen. [29]
Recognizing the blatantly visible presence of corruption in Pakistan leaves no doubt as to why the country has experienced a steep and continuous decline in good governance since the 1990s. Furthermore, Pakistan has performed poorly on all six sub-components of governance measured by the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI), “voice, rule of law, control of corruption, accountability, regulatory quality and political stability/absence of violence and terrorism.” [30] However, its weakest measured
performance has consistently, and unsurprisingly, been in “Control of Corruption.”[31] This lack of control will only further worsen measurements for the alternate governance indicators, continuing Pakistan’s good governance decline and reinforcing its foundational inability to maintain effective and functional institutions. Pakistan’s insistence on haltering its own development is leaving invasive structural scars that will be distressingly difficult to overcome.
Economic Instability
The effects of corruption seep into all aspects of a society if left unchecked, as it has in Pakistan. The state’s economy and infrastructure have fallen into a disarray due to the nations lack of productive policies or accountability for its public institutions. Pakistan has, arguably, willingly curbed its own growth and leaned on the crutch of the global community and funding from the IMF, while simultaneously funneling that money into the pockets of corrupt politicians and refusing to invest in adequate facilities or infrastructure for its populace.[32] Good governance is naturally associated with higher levels of GDP per capita and GDP growth over time, but Pakistan’s decline in good governance also serves to foreshadow and accompany its fractured and stumbling economy.[33]
Pakistan’s economy has faced both external and internal shocks throughout its history, and the downward and unsustainable trend has increasingly made policymakers and economists worried. A team of economists from the Pakistan Institute of Development Economy published a study that highlighted the trends of inflation in relation to corruption rates, revealing that, “in terms of public finances, corruption and poor governance may independently impact both the expenditure and revenue sides of the government's budget.”[34] However, while corruption does serve as core catalyst for the nation’s economic struggles, other notable reasons for the instable economy are recognized as, “the fiscal deficit, high inflation, lack of human and physical capital, increasing foreign debt, low exchange rate, natural disasters and unfavorable law and order conditions for investments.”[35] Furthermore, Pakistan experienced a record period of high inflation between 2008 and 2012 that also coincided with one of the weakest fiscal performances in Pakistan’s history, reinforcing the correlation that institutional fiscal failings hold influence over inflation and the growth, or decline, of the economy.[36]
One of the most prominent hurdles to a stable economy is Pakistan’s informal economy. This informal/undocumented economy, which is essentially an underground illegal network of smuggling, trade, loans, and the black market, is estimated to be anywhere between 25-90 percent of the recorded economy, and is only continuing to grow in size.[37] The formal sector of Pakistan’s economy is being hurt by the weak enforcement against the informal economy, as well as the rising taxes and fiscal headaches from dealing with the corrupt bureaucrats who impose crippling levies and regulations.[38] Thereby, corruption again is hindering the development of its own economy, and consequently encouraging citizens to engage in corrupt behavior themselves.
These feelings of frustration regarding the formal economic sector is surely fueled by the dysfunctional tax system in Pakistan. With barely one million income tax filers in a population of 200 million, the tax revenue of the government amounts to less than 11% of the GDP.[39] By bribing off tax officials, citizens are able to avoid paying income and business taxes, but this results in a lack of tax revenue for the state to be able to support the required level of public investment in infrastructure.”[40] Instead of attempting to reform these tax evasion practices, the government continues to exacerbate the corrupt practices and negatively impact its economy and GDP with the lack of public and private investments and economic stabilization measures.
Infrastructure Crisis
Conforming to its developing nation status, the nation of Pakistan has a severe infrastructure crisis that is negatively impacting the daily lives of the citizens in numerous ways, obstructing personal development and consequently societal and national development. Again, this crisis ties back to the corruption that is present in every sector of the country. As stated before, the power sector is one of the most corrupt-prone institutions. Subsequently, the people in Pakistan are facing numerous problems due to load shedding, which are intentional electrical shutdowns.[41] A study conducted in 2013 by Rab Nawaz Lodhi and Dr. R. K. Malik from Bahria University addresses the rampant problem of load shedding and blackouts in the country and how the issue impacts the daily lives and routines of the citizens.[42]
The study revealed that electricity shortages are “key problems in Pakistan,” with load shedding that ranges from “8-16 hours daily” all over the country.[43] Pakistan’s electrical demands are rising as industries like agriculture must produce more product, but as the necessity rises the efficiency decreases, as the power sector cannot produce more electricity due to the country’s shortage of gas and oil resources.[44] This dysfunctional relationship between the need and demand is extremely problematic and highlights how development in the country is hindered from all sides. Pakistan’s top-down corruption and bad governance has damaged its infrastructure efforts, resulting in a severely insufficient power sector that is exacerbating the infrastructure crisis. The findings of the study also revealed that the constant blackouts affect people on both micro and macro levels, beyond class and career cleavages; “all people are suffering including farmers, housewives, laborers, students, businessmen and industrialists.”[45]
The energy crisis reveals how Pakistan “cannot show progress in any discipline” due to the extensive implications the electricity shortages inflict on the people.[46] The study underlined that, “students cannot complete their assignments on time; teachers cannot deliver their lectures effectively; factories cannot meet production quotas.”[47] This data emphasizes how underdevelopment of the power sector, a result of continuous corruption, is decreasing the possibility of development in other areas as well, such as education, economy, and overall quality of life.
The lack of proficient energy production is but one example of the wide-spread infrastructure crisis in Pakistan. Another, arguably more distressing, issue is the insufficient sanitation measures in Pakistan, which has resulted in an unhygienic water crisis and increasing levels of water-borne diseases.[48] The presence of unhygienic drinking water and water-related diseases, such as dysentery, cholera, giardiasis, and hepatitis A and E are a recognizable indication of a country’s developmental level.[49] This correlation is backed by a 2008 UNICEF report that revealed approximately 99.8% of deaths in developing nations were from water-related diseases.[50] A lack of clean water and sanitation is one of the most rampant problems in Pakistan, and a 2016 publication by Dawn that about 84% to 89% water sources in Pakistan do not fulfill the water quality standards for human consumption and are hazardous for health.[51]
A study by Junaid Zahid of the Sustainable Development Policy Institute revealed how the Water and Sanitation infrastructure in Pakistan is severely underdeveloped and exacerbating health issues.[52] Data extracted from various provinces shows direct correlation between the levels of sanitation and rate of diarrhea and illness/mortality, “The regression analysis provide[s] evidence in support of our hypothesis that, disease rate does not improve if unimproved water and sanitation prevails.[53] Lack of proper sanitation and water-borne illnesses are distressing to recognize even during “regular” circumstances, but the flaws in Pakistan’s infrastructure grow increasingly harrowing to acknowledge as the current COVID-19 pandemic continues its grip on the planet.
If Pakistan’s infrastructure is not developed enough to ensure its citizens have clean drinking water, the concept of the state effectively handling the extremely contagious virus is dismal and bleak. This is but another example of how the nation is stubbornly clutching onto its status as a developing country but taking no measures to develop or establish stability and sustainability for its citizens. As noted before, corruption has rendered Pakistan’s institutions obsolete in daily functions, and miserably underdeveloped in the face of large-scale crises like COVID-19.
Consequences of American & Chinese Investments
While much of the blame for Pakistan’s developmental shortcomings should and does rest on the Pakistani government and internal institutions, it is only fair to recognize how globalization and international aid has played a role in reinforcing the long-standing corrupt governance model in Pakistan and enabled it to avoid gaining a stable foundation and independent sustainability. Pakistan has developed a habit of borrowing from outside of its borders, increasing repayment debt, and subsequently raising taxes on its citizens in an attempt to maintain the gaping hole of repayment. [54] For context, Pakistan has signed up to 12 programs with the International Monterey Fund (IMF) 1988, which have been designed foremost to achieve “macroeconomic stabilization” rather than development. [55] However, this cycle has been overly detrimental to Pakistan’s economic well-being, as it is stuck in a cycle of borrowing and repaying, with the repayment process hindered by the corrupt tax collection institution, thus resulting in more borrowing in order to gain some semblance of economic stability.[56]
Beyond the IMF, Pakistan also maintains strategic political and economic relationships with nations like China and the United States, despite occasional objective clashes with the latter.[57] Noticeably the United States and Pakistan have had sharply opposing strategic objectives in regards to America’s growing rivalry with China and Pakistan’s consistent power struggles with India, which the U.S. openly claims as a strategic partner.[58] Despite this, America and Pakistan have worked together for the past two decades in regards to, “achieving a political settlement in Afghanistan and eliminating terrorism in South Asia,” which has increased incentive on the United States part to increase direct foreign investment to Pakistan.[59]
This funding would be piled on top of the investment Pakistan already receives from China, which is reported to be about $18.9 billion through the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).[60] These CPEC investments have “reportedly” been used to launch 22 energy and infrastructure projects over the past five years, and are aimed at alleviating Pakistan’s energy crisis and improving transportation between the countries provinces.[61] Yet, there are critical flaws with the funding that Pakistan has received from China, because research and data reveals that Pakistan’s energy crisis is still very much a current and rampant problem, which begs the question, where are the billions of dollars going? The evidence naturally suggests that it is being utilized in a corrupt fashion, as the power sector very much remains underfunded and underdeveloped.
The repetitive behavior of the nation is disappointingly predictable and underlines the cycle that the country willingly catapults itself into, at the detriment of its citizens.[62] Accepting aid, investments, and funding for the pretense of development and instead funneling them into the hands of corrupt officials while raising taxes on an already suffering populace is grievously irresponsible, immoral, and corrupt.
Prospects of Reform
Corruption is widely recognized and acknowledged in Pakistan, but the lack of accountability and comprehensive reform has turned the occurrence into a staple representative of the country itself. Without effectively dismantling the chokeholds that corrupt has interwoven on the government and public institutions, Pakistan will find itself hard-pressed to ever fully develop and join the global stage as an equal and credible figure. To be fair, Pakistan has attempted reform efforts before, but their methods have been flawed and feeble at best. For example, in 1999 the government established the National Accountability Bureau (NAB), with aims to increase accountability in the nation and end corruption.[63] The NAB announced the National Anti-Corruption Strategy (NACS), which was a three-step plan focusing on: “1) Prevention, 2) Awareness and 3) Enforcement.”[64]
The NAB was designed to be an apex institution against corruption in Pakistan, with authority to, “take investigation of corruption in its ambit, even if it is under investigation with any other agency”[65]However, the story of these corruption reform attempts follow a similar plot to Pakistan receiving investments for the power sector that never seem to reach the door. Similarly, the NAB was performative at best, as it announced in 2002, just three years after inception, that it has, “been in limbo ever since its creation as it failed to gain the required political patronage/acceptance within the NAB establishment, due to lack of support from the donors, and for poor communication and exposure with the general public.”[66]
There was a distinct mismatch between the public’s understandings of corruption, versus what the NAB had set out to investigate and reform. Upon interviewing officers from the National Accountability Bureau, it was revealed that their understanding of corruption were broad and conceptual, rather than comprehensive and focused on visible corrupt actions by Pakistani officials and public officers. For example, one interviewee mentioned that, “I think that any act executed by a serving government officer to his own end and anybody assisting in that encompasses the very definition of corruption...,” while another stated, “The duty of a government officer is to serve the public, and disrupting the very basis of routine work and twisting that in the direction of his own benefits generates the idea of corruption.” [67]
While these definitions are fine for understanding corruption, they are laughably flawed in the context of actionable governmental investigation and reform, as they approach the concept very theoretically and fail to identify any visible or precedent examples of corruption already existent in Pakistan. The approach is reminiscent of the “genocide vs ethnic cleansing” debate, which is that providing assistance or reform by the NAB’s standards relies first on proving intent, which is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to do considering the web of corruption Pakistan has built to protect and preserve itself.
Furthermore, anti-corruption efforts have only been backsliding since the inception of the NAB and NACS. One main cause has been the decision made by President General Musharraf in 2007 that granted immunity to corrupt elements and barred legal action against ministers and parliamentarians”[68] This action extremely undermined anti-corruption efforts and again reinforced and enabled institutional corrupt to remain present and rampant. If Pakistan wishes to grow, develop, and efficiently care for its citizens it must firmly eradicate corruption at its core and restructure itself from the roots up.
There is great need for a formal, structured process to be put in place in order for this reform to happen, as consistent communication between the government and the citizens is essential throughout the process.[69] The engagement should also be undertaken by a dedicated source or catalytic agent that is openly impartial and has a strong degree of credibility and trust with both the government and citizens.[70] However, what is absolutely integral for any reform process Pakistan undertakes is that the impartial agent have convening power for an extended period, as the process is far from an overnight fix, but will need to be regularly scheduled and sustained over a period of time to be able to gain both traction and visible action necessary to implement reform and growth.”[71]
Conclusion
It is important to note that Pakistan’s behavior during the current COVID-19 pandemic reveals how long-standing and deep-seated corruption has crippled the country’s development and rendered its role as a credible governance obsolete due to the failures of protecting its people. The citizen-government relationship worldwide has come under a harsh light due to the global pandemic, but in Pakistan, as usual, the relationship is non-existent and serves to protect and promote the government interests over its peoples. The country needs reform from the ground up, and it needs it quickly if it hopes to maintain the level of development it currently holds and continue moving forward.
The crafting of new framework is necessary to dismantling the currently oppressive hold corruption has on the nation and reinstating a social contract that allows for mutual benefits between the government and citizens and growth for all. If Pakistan refuses to enact constructive reform measures the nation will continue hindering its own development, further exacerbating the economic instability, and destroying its own infrastructure. The people of Pakistan deserve better, the country has too much potential to allow it to be wasted funding the bank accounts of the few, at the expense of the nation’s much-needed development.
Works Cited
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Endnotes
[1] "Pakistan Supreme Court Quotes The Godfather In Its Nawaz Sharif-Panama Papers Case Order". India Today, [2] "Pakistan | History - Geography". Encyclopedia Britannica. [3] Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan." Pakistan Economic and Social Review p124. [4] Ali, Asif, et al. “Theory and Practice of Understanding Corruption in Pakistan: Case Study of National Accountability Bureau, KPK.” The Pakistan Development Review. p362. [5] Ibid p362. [6] Ibid p362. [7] Ibid p362. [8] [8] Chêne, Marie. "Overview Of Corruption In Pakistan". U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre p4. [9] Ibid p4. [10] Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan."p126. [11] Chêne, Marie. "Overview Of Corruption In Pakistan" p4. [12] Ibid p4. [13] Ibid p5. [14] Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan." p126. [15] Ali, Asif, et al. “Theory and Practice of Understanding Corruption in Pakistan” p362. [16] Noor, Muhammad T. “Institutional Dynamics of Governance and Corruption in Developing World: The Case of Pakistan.” Ruprecht-Karls-UniversitätHeidelberg, p25. [17] Ibid p25. [18] Ibid p25. [19] Ibid p25. [20] Sherani, Sakib. “Institutional Reforms in Pakistan: Missing Piece of the Development Puzzle.” Sustainable Development Policy Institute p40. [21] Ibid p40. [22]Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan."p132. [23] Sherani, Sakib. “Institutional Reforms in Pakistan.” p42. [24] Ibid p42. [25] Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan."p132. [26] Ibid p132. [27] Ibid p129. [28] Sherani, Sakib. “Institutional Reforms in Pakistan” p43. [29] Ibid p43. [30] Ibid p44. [31] Ibid p44. [32] Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan” p128. [33] Sherani, Sakib. “Institutional Reforms in Pakistan” p46. [34] Haider, Adnan, Musleh Ud Din, and Ejaz Ghani. "Consequences of Political Instability, Governance and Bureaucratic Corruption on Inflation and Growth: The Case of Pakistan." The Pakistan Development Review p779. [35] Ali, Amjad, and Hafeez Ur Rehman. "Macroeconomic Instability and its Impact on Gross Domestic Product: An Empirical Analysis of Pakistan." Pakistan Economic and Social Review pp286. [36] Sherani, Sakib. “Institutional Reforms in Pakistan” p51. [37] Sherani, Sakib. “Institutional Reforms in Pakistan” p47. [38] Ibid p47. [39] Ibid p42. [40] Ibid p47. [41] Lodhi, Rab Nawaz, and R. K. Malik. “Impact of Electricity Shortage on Daily Routines: A Case Study of Pakistan.” Energy & Environment p701. [42] Ibid p701. [43] Ibid p702. [44] Ibid p702. [45] Ibid p708. [46] Ibid p708. [47] Ibid p708. [48] Zahid, Junaid. “Impact of Clean Drinking Water and Sanitation on Water Borne Diseases in Pakistan.” Sustainable Development Policy Institute p3. [49] Ibid p3. [50] Ibid p4. [51] Ibid p4. [52] Ibid p20. [53] Ibid p22. [54] Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan." p128. [55] Sherani, Sakib. “Institutional Reforms in Pakistan” p49. [56] Ibid p49. [57] Khokhar, Riaz A. “Cooperation between the United States and Pakistan: What Is the Future?” East-West Center p1. [58] Ibid p1. [59] Ibid p2. [60] Ibid p4. [61] Ibid p4. [62] Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan." p128. [63] Ibid p128. [64] Ibid p128. [65] Ali, Asif, et al. “Theory and Practice of Understanding Corruption in Pakistan” p368. [66] Javaid, Umbreen. "Corruption and its Deep Impact on Good Governance in Pakistan." p130. [67] Ali, Asif, et al. “Theory and Practice of Understanding Corruption in Pakistan” p370. [68] Chêne, Marie. "Overview Of Corruption In Pakistan" p6. [69] Sherani, Sakib. “Institutional Reforms in Pakistan” p58. [70] Ibid p58. [71] Ibid p58.
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